Grammar of the Old Testament Aramaic

• The Method
• 1. The Story of Aramaic
  • Aramaic in the Bible
  • Important Related Documents
• 2. The Aramaic Alphabet
  • BeGaD KeFaT
  • Final Form
  • The Vowels
  • The Half-Vowels
  • Consonants Used as Vowels
  • Daghesh Forte
  • Gutturals
  • Sibilants
  • Labials
  • Furtive Pathach
  • Syllables
  • Aramaic Differences
    • Hebrew               Aramaic              Translation
    • דהב זהב                       gold
  • Practice
• 3. Pronouns
  • The Pronoun
  • Independent Personal Pronouns
  • Demonstrative Pronouns
  • Relative Pronoun
  • Interrogative Pronouns
  • Pronominal Suffixes
  • Practice
• 4. Introduction to Verbs
  • The Verb
  • Practice
• 5. The Simple Verb
  • The Simple Verb Stems
  • Peal Perfect Strong Verb
  • נבוכדנצר מלכא ]בד צלם די-ךהב
  • ונבוכדנצר מלכא שלח למכנש לאחשדדרפחא
    • Peal Imperfect Strong Verbs
  • תפלון ותסגדון לצלם דהבא די הקים נבוכךנצר מלכא
    • Imperfect Notes
  • חלם חזית וידחלנני והרהרין ]ל-משכבי וחזוי ראשי יבהלנני
    • Peal Imperative
  • וכל-רז לא-אנס ל% חזוי חלמי די-חזית ופשרה אמר
    • Peal Infinitive
  • לחנכה צלמא הי הקים נבוכדנצר מלכא
    • Peal Participle
  • ענה דניאל ואמר להוא שמה ךי־אלהא מברך מ!־עלמא ועך־עלמא
    • Peal Strong Verb Notes
    • Peil Perfect Strong Verb
    • Peil Participle
    • Hithpeel Perfect Strong Verb
  • חזה הוית ]ד די התגזרת אבן די-לא בידין
    • Hithpeel Imperfect Verb
    • Hithpeel Infinitive
  • דניאל יחברוהי להריקטלה to
    • Hithpeel Participle
    • Ithpeel Verb Stem
  • Practice
• 6. Nouns
  • The Noun
  • Name Locality
  • Name   Idea
  • I. Gender of Nouns and Adjectives
  • II. Number
  • רגלין     feet
  • תרתין   two
    • Singular                         Plural
  • %מל       king         ^    מלכין       kings
    • Singular                        Plural
  • מתנה        gift            —    מתנן            gifts
    • Singular
  • מלה
    • Plural
  • מלין
    • III. State
  • מלת מלכא
    • Hebrew              Aramaic            Translation
  • the king                מלכא                 המלך
    • IV. The Construct Chain
    • V. The Particle די .
    • VI. Pronominal Suffixes with Nouns.
  • Practice
• 7. The Intensive Verb
  • Aramaic Intensive Verbs
  • Pael Perfect Strong Verb
  • אזה _יתיךא גביא אלך הי הסקו לשדדך מישך ועבד נגר קטל המון שביבא ךי נורא
    • Pael Imperfect Strong Verb
  • חלם חזית ויךחלכני יהךהךין על־משכבי
    • Pael Imperative Strong Verb
  • אתרו ]פיה ובדרו אנבה תנד חיותא מן־תחתוהי וצפריא מן־ענפוהי
    • Pael Infinitive Strong Verb
    • Pael Participle
  • הוא גלא ]מיקתא ומסתרתא יד] מה בחשוכא ונהירא ]מה שרא
    • Hithpaal Perfect Strong Verb
  • יהתנבי הגי נביאה וזכריה בר־עהוא נביאיא על־יהודיא די ביהוד
    • Hithpaal Imperfect Strong Verb
  • ובטל שמיא יצטבע יעם־הותא הלקה בעשב ארעא
    • Hithpaal Participle Strong Verb
  • ודי חזית פרזלא מערב בחסף טינא מתערבין
    • Hithpaal Infinitive Construct Strong Verb
    • Ithpaal Perfect
  • Practice
• 8. Adjectives, Conjunctions and Prepositions
  • Adjectives
  • Conjunctions
  • ואף קדמך מלכא חבולה לא עבדת
  • ברם איתי אלה בשמיא גלא ר־זין
  • והן לא תסגון בהישעתה תתרמון לגוא־אתון נורא יקדתא
  • להן חלמא ופשרה החווי
    • Prepositions
  • Practice
• 9. The Causative Verb
  • Aramaic Causative Verbs
  • Haphel/Aphel/Shaphel Perfect Strong Verb
  • באדין דניאל התיב עטא וטעם לאריוך רב־טבחיא
  • אקימה בבקעת דורא במךינת בבל
    • Haphel Imperfect Strong Verb
  • כען דניאל יתקרי ופשרה יהחוה
    • Haphel Imperative Strong Verb
  • וכן אמר־לה לחכימי בבל אל־תהובד העלני קדם מלכא ופשרא למלכא אחוא
    • Haphel Participle Strong Verb
  • על־מה דתא מהחצפה מן־קדם מלכא
    • Haphel Infinitive Strong Verb
    • Hophal Perfect Strong Verb
  • Practice
• 10. Adverbs, Particles and Numbers
  • Aramaic Adverbs
  • Aramaic Particles
  • Interrogative Particle ה
  • ענה מלכא ואמר הלא דא-היא בבל רבתא
    • Accusative Particle
    • Interjection Particles
    • Numbers
  • Practice
• 11. The Weak Verbs
  • Basic Rules for Weak Verbs34
  • First Root Consonant Rules
  • Second Root Consonant Rules
  • Final Root Consonant Rules
  • Verbs with ח, [, or ר
• Appendix
  • Answers to Questions
  • Vocabulary
  • Verb Charts
  • Bibliography

Project “Biblical Hebrew for linguists — Westminster Leningrad Codex” 🌐wlc.ibc.oarc.science

UNDER CONSTRUCTION

Preface

The basic idea of any introductory language text is to keep it simple! While keeping it simple, I have tried to also keep the complexity inherent with Aramaic and Hebrew grammatical terms simple and unifirm. This simplification is often a hard thing to accomplish since the student also needs to get aquanted with all the technical terms involved yet at the same time not be lost with too many terms which mean the same thing.

I must thank my Aramaic teacher, David Austin at Tyndale Seminary, Fort Worth, for his encouragement with both Hebrew and Aramaic. Also, my doctrinal advisor and mentor Dr. Mal Couch who spent countless hours discussing language, theology, and life issues. These long discussions instilled in me the “keep it simple,” philosophy that I, in turn, emphisize to my students. It is my hope that the student of this Aramaic grammar will find the complex made simple, while expanding in knowledge and understanding of the original author’s meaning. It is not possible to interpret completely the thoughts of the original author without going to the original author’s language. That means going back to the often obscure Aramaic text.

The Method

The method used for learning the Aramaic of the Old Testament is based on the internet video Bible Aramaic VPOD produced by the author. This program is based on the three fundamentals:

• •  Chapter reading of the grammar book

• •  Video instruction using the Aramaic video lessons

• •  Then, back to the book for practice, exercises, and translations

This method is simple, straight to the point, and proven. It is the purpose of this method and program that the student will gain a quick understanding and confidence working with the language while the love and value of it grows.

Working the practice exercises is extremely valuable. There is no substitute for memorizing the vocabulary and translating the verses. The volume of words to memorize for each lesson is manageable, and the translation work limited to five or six verses. Use a Bible, in fact several versions of the Bible when translating so as to get acquainted with variations.

May your time be spent in the Word and may the richness and depth of His Word working together with the Holy Spirit bless and mature you greatly.

1. The Story of Aramaic

Aramaic has been traditionally classified as a Northwest Semitic language, this group includes the Aramaic and Canaanite dialects. The South Semitic group includes the Arabic group and the East Semitic group includes the Akkadian language.

The name Aramaic is found in Ezra 4:7 as ארמית (‘aramiyth) which is the feminine of Aramaean, and translated Aramaic, but the older translations say the ”Syrian language.” In Genesis 10:22, Aram, the youngest son of Shem, is mentioned as the founder of the Aramaean nation, and thus the country is rightly called “Aram” (Num. 23:7); but the same Hebrew word is rendered “Mesopotamia” (Judge 3:10)2. Syria is an abbreviated form of Assyria and came into common use after the conquests of Alexander the Great.

The Aramaic found in Daniel’s day is referred to in Daniel 2:4 as כשדימה (kasdiymah), or the shortened form כשדי (kasdiy) from Kasdites the descendents of Kesed and has come to be known as the Chaldean language common to the region of Babylonia. The dating of Daniel can be found in the fact that Chaldea was a country that existed between the late 10th to early 9th and the mid-6th centuries BC, after which it was absorbed into Babylonia. They existed in the marshy land of the far southern corner of Mesopotamia located chiefly on the left bank of the Euphrates and were identified as both Suteans and Arameans. The Chaldeans originally spoke a West Semitic dialect distinct from Aramaic and it was during the Assyrian Empire of king Tiglath-Pileser II that the Eastern Aramaic dialect known as the lingua franca dominated the area. Dr. Larry Walker says, “Although the Aramaeans never possessed a mighty empire, they enjoyed the privilege of imposing their language on the whole Near East. This is undoubtedly partly due to the fact that they used the alphabetic system of writing in contrast to the cumbersome cuneiform (syllabic) system used in writing Akkadian. As early as the 8th century B.C., the Aramaic language competed with Akkadian and thereafter gradually spread throughout the Near East. When the Achaemenian3 monarchs looked for a tongue which could be understood by all their subjects, they chose Aramaic which became the lingua franca of their vast empire. Aramaic attained its maximum diplomatic prestige during the Achaemenian Empire of Persia, where it was used as the interprovincial language from India to Egypt between the 6th and 4th centuries B.C.”4

It is during the time of Abraham that the Chaldean dialect moves into the Biblical story as Abraham originated from Ur of the Chaldees (c. 2000 B.C.; Gen. 11:28-31). As Abraham moved into the land of Canaan, one finds a unique Hebrew dialect established as a distinct branch. Aramaic is sometimes refered to as a Northern dialec of the Semitic branch of languages and Hebrew is specifically designated as a Northwestern dialect. All indications are that in the 8th century B.C. Aramaic’s alphabetic system won over the more cumbersome cuneiform of the dominate Akkadian that rulled the day.

The earliest Aramaic inscriptions discovered so far come from the ninth century B.C.5

Aramaic in the Bible

As Dr. Franz Rosenthal observed, “Official Aramaic, when written by people whose native language was not Aramaic, showed considerable divergences in a number of aspects, especially in the syntax and the vocabulary…. The Aramaic of the Bible as written has preserved the Offical Aramaic character. This is what makes it nearly uniform in linguistic appearance. It also makes it largely identical with the language used in Official Aramaic texts. Most numerous among these are the Aramaic documents of the Achaemenid period (550-330 BC) discovered in Egypt which are invaluable for the understanding of Biblical Aramaic.”6

The letters of Biblical Aramaic are the same used in Hebrew. “The so-called Hebrew or square script is, in fact, a Jewish specialization of the older Official (Imperial) Aramaic script adopted by the Jews in the course of their acceptance of Aramaic as the Aramaic spoken among them.7

The extent of the Aramaic found in the Bible is identified by the following:

• I.  Old Testament

• 1. Genesis 31:47 (two words)

• 2. Ezra 4:8-6:18 and 7:12-26.

• 3.  Jeremiah 10:11.

• 4.  Daniel 2:4-7:28

• II. New Testament

• 1. Matthew 5:22 (one word, “Raca” “fool”); 27:46 (“Eli Eli lema sabachthani” “My God, my God, why have you forsaken Me?”)

• 2.  Mark 5:41; 7:34; 11:9; 14:36 (simple expressions. i.e. “Abba,” “Father”)

• 3. John 20:16 (one word, “Rabbouni” “teacher”)

• 4.  1 Cor. 16:22 (one word, “Maranatha” “our Lord come”)

Some of the more notable differences between Aramaic and Hebrew is summarized as follows:8

• 1.  Consonantal changes.

• a.  The original “th” shifted to “sh” in Hebrew, “t” in Aramaic.

• b.  The original “d” shifted to “ts” in Hebrew, silent ‘ayin or occasionally “q” in Aramaic.

• c.  The original “z” shifted to “ts” in Hebrew, “t” in Aramaic

• d. The original “dh” became to “z” in Hebrew, “d” in Aramaic.

• 2. Vowel changes

• a.  Aramaic perserves the original long “a,” whereas the Canaanite shifted to “o.”

• b. Aramaic perserves the original “i,” whereas the Hebrew shifted to long “e.”

• c.  Aramaic perserves the original “u,” whereas the Hebrew shifted to long “o.”

• d. “a” under accent does not lengthen as it does in Hebrew.

Important Related Documents

Together with the Bible are found several important Aramaic related works. These Aramaic works are found in the works of their period. Around the time of Christ, Aramaic split into two main branches, East and West. There are two important early manuscripts to note, the Jerusalm Targum of the Western branch and the Babylonian Targum representing the Eastern branch (c. 1st century).

The Christian Aramaic speaking community created the Peshitta, the Aramaic Bible (c. 2nd-3rd century).

2. The Aramaic Alphabet

The Aramaic and Hebrew , alphabets are the same. ___

• 9 Transliteration is the process of assigning an English equivalent to the Hebrew letter.

• 10 I prefer vav over waw. That is how I learned it so I will continue with that heritage.

Notice the five groupings. These are organized in four or five letters per group in order to help in the memorization process. It is far easier to memorize a group of four or five letters, then, once the group is memorized, move on to the next group. Memorize the letter, saying the name and writing the letter many times. Do this until the whole alphabet can be written without hesitation.

BeGaD KeFaT

Notice there are some letters that are repeated and contain a dot (•) within it (e.g., T). This dot is called a Daghesh Lene and indicates a hard pronunciation. These letters are called begadkephat (a composite built on the names of the six letters בגדכפת) as a way to remember them. These letters are B, G, D, פ ,כ, T. As you can see, Aramaic, like Hebrew is written from right to left.

Final Form

There are five letters that contain a final form. A final form letter should be used when that letter is in the last position of the word.

Final kaf $ has two special forms that come up a lot. Final kaf ך is written with a silent sheva ( ) when it lacks a vowel and looks like %. Likewise final kaf has the final qamets ( t ) placed inside it and looks like ך.

Certain letters sound alike

As you can tell some of the letter sound alike.

The Vowels

Our ancient Hebrew and Aramaic text had no written vowels. The written vowels were added around AD 500 by the Masoretes who added them in order to preserve the language. It is not that the language did not use vowels; it is just that there was no written form until later. The speaker would add the vowel as necessary. For example, all verbs (with exception) use the “a” sound in the first syllable while its noun equivalent will use the “e” sound in the first vowel position. The system they developed is called the pointing system whose intention is not to alter the established written form. The pointing added small dots and symbols below and above the character.

Aramaic has the “a,” “e,” “i,” “o,” and “u” vowel sounds as shown below.

Table of Full-Vowels

Long Vowels. The following table lists the Aramaic/Hebrew long vowels.

Naturally long vowels. The following table lists the Aramic/Hebrew naturally long vowels. Naturally long vowels are formed using either a vav (ו) or ayod (י).

11 The older authors use qames, pdtah, etc. The spelling is often different depending on the author. One thing the beginning student of Aramaic needs to know is that nothing is consistent between different authors.

Short Vowels. The following table lists the Aramaic/Hebrew short vowels.

The Half-Vowels

In addition to vowels, Aramaic, like Hebrew, makes use of semi-vowels or half-vowels. These half vowels make use of the sheva or shewa (שוא). There are two classes of sheva, the first is the vocal sheva which stands alone and is pronounced like an “e” as in ברית (berit) pronounced “breet.” It is transliterated as a superscript e as in berit. The other class is a silent sheva which is a sheva placed beneath a consonant that ends a syllable and sometimes placed in the final kaf (%).

The other sheva is used as a compound with other vowels and makes a hurried vowel sound. The compound shevas are as follows:

Consonants Used as Vowels

The consonants אהוי may be used as vowel letters. א and ה are used for final a or e, ו for o or u, and י for 1 and e. Final e, which occurs very rarely, is indicated by h.9

Daghesh Forte

The Daghesh forte is a dot in the letter which indicated one is to double the consonant in which it occurs. It is the same mark as the daghesh lene placed in the six consonants. For example in, הבן (habben) the bet is doubled.

The rules for a dagheshforte are as follows:

• 1. A dot in any letter other than a BaGad KeFaT letter is a dagheshforte.

• 2. A daghesh forte is always found immediately after a vowel, whereas a daghesh lene is never found after a vowel.

Gutturals

The gutturals are: a, [, ה, n, and sometimes ר. They are gutturals because they are pronounced from the back of the throat.

Sibilants

The sibilants are: ס ,ז, c, f, and V. They are classified as sibilants because of their “s” sounds.

Labials

The labials are: מ ,ב, and פ.

Furtive Pathach

When a word ends with one of the gutturals or and a Pathach is beneath the final guttural it is called a Furtive Pathach and the Pathach is pronounced before the final guttural. An example is nwr (ruach), “spirit, wind.”

Syllables

The word syllable comes to the English from the Greek syllabe meaning, “that which holds together,” and applies to how a word is pronounced. A word or part of a word pronounced with a single, uninterrupted sound of the voice is a syllable. Aramaic words have as many syllables as they have separate consonants. In general, words are broken up into syllables using the following rules:

• •  All syllables in a word must begin with a consonant.

• •  A syllable must include one full vowel or a half vowel.

• •  There are as many syllables as there are full vowels.

• •  A syllable will split the doubled letter of a daghesh forte.

Aramaic syllables are either open or closed. An open syllable is one that ends in a vowel and is normally a long vowel. A closed syllable is one that ends in a consonant and the vowel will normally be short.

Aramaic Differences

There are a few things to point out concerning the differences between Aramaic and Hebrew. These differences are summarized as follows:

• 1. Hebrew words with zayin (ז) may be changed to dalet (ד) in Aramaic.

Hebrew               Aramaic              Translation

דהב זהב                       gold

nbz                          nbD                         to sacrifice

• 2. Hebrew words with tsade (c) may be changed to tet (ט) in Aramaic.

  Hebrew

  צור

  ##### Aramaic

  ##### טור

  ##### Translation

  mountain

• 3. Hebrew words with tsade (צ) may by changed to ayin (ע) in Aramaic.

  Hebrew

  ארץ

  עץ

  Aramaic

  ארעה אע

  Translation land, earth tree

  4. Hebrew words with shin (ש) may be changed to tav (ת) in Aramaic.

  Hebrew

  שור

  ישב

  ##### Aramaic                Translation

  ##### תור                           bull

  יתב                         to dwell

  5. The Aramaic consonants are interchangeable13.

  			Aramaic option	Aramaic option	Translation
  א	and	ה	לא	לה	not
  			נהרא	:הרה	river
  ש	and	ס	ארתחששתא	ארתחשסתא	Artaxerxes
  			שבכא	סבכא	harp

  6. Hebrew words normally spelled with the long o-class vowel, Holem Vav, may be spelled with the long a-class vowel, Qamets, in Aramaic. This is referred to as the Canaanite shift.14

  Hebrew	Aramaic	Trnanslation
  שלום	שלם	peace
  אנוש	איש	man
  “דור	דר	generation
  טוב	טב	good

  7. The determinate state. The definite article is moved to the end of the word and changes to Qamets with alef (aT ).

  ##### Hebrew

  ##### חטלד

  ##### Aramaic                 Trnanslation

  ##### מלכא

  the king

  • 13 Miles Van Pelt, Basics of Biblical Aramaic (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2011), p. 4

  • 14 Miles Van Pelt, Basics of Biblical Aramaic (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2011), p. 10

• 8. Fewer uses of the vav conjunction (ו) in Aramaic than in Hebrew.

• 9. Greater use of the word די . The word may be used as a subordinate conjunction (“that, so that, when, after”), a genitive (“that of, which belongs to”), and a relative pronoun (“who, which, that”).

• 10. Common words. Some common words are noticeably different.

  Common word	Aramaic	Hebrew
  to come	אתה	בוא
  to fear	דחל	ירא
  to see	חזה	ראה
  to speak	מלל	דבר אמר
  to go down	נחת	ירד

Practice

• A. Memorize the consonants.

• B. Memorize the vowels.

• C. Memorize the half-vowels.

• D. Memorize the 9 major differences between Hebrew and Aramaic.

3. Pronouns

Vocabulary

decree

The Pronoun

Like English pronouns, Aramaic pronouns replace a noun. The noun that it replaces is called the antecedent. In the statement, יהוה הוא האלהים “The LORD, he [is] God” the pronoun “he” refers back to the nearest antecedent “LORD.” The word pronoun comes from the Latin pro meaning, “before, for,” and nomen meaning, “a name.” Aramaic pronouns are classified as personal, demonstrative, relative, and interrogative.

Independent Personal Pronouns

Independent personal pronouns are used to reduce repetition. Independent personal pronouns may be used as the subject of the verb but not the object of the verb. They may also appear as subjects of a verbless clause. Personal pronouns function as follows:

• 1. First person pronouns “I” and “we” refer to the person speaking.

• 2.  Second person pronoun “you” refers to the person being spoken to.

• 3.  Third person pronouns “he,” “she,” and “it,” refer to the person or thing spoken of.

  	Aramaic	Translation		Aramaic	Translation
  1cs10	אנה	I	1cp	אבחנה	we
  2ms	אנתה אנת	you	2mp	אנתון	you
  2fs	-	you	2fp	-	you
  3ms	הוא	he/it	3mp	הטו הטון אפון	they
  3fs	היא	she/it	3fp	אנץ	they

Demonstrative Pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns serve to point out someone or something being singled out for attention. For example, “this man” points out this specific man. Demonstrative pronouns may be either near, “this,” or far, “that.”

1. Near demonstratives.

Relative Pronoun

The Aramaic relative pronoun די “who, which, that,” introduces a relative clause and the noun it modifies. The relative pronoun does not possess gender or number; it simply stands alone following the noun it modifies or is attached to the noun with the maqqef.

Interrogative Pronouns

An interrogative pronoun serves to ask a question. The Aramaic interrogative pronouns do not possess gender or number and includes the following:

Pronominal Suffixes

Pronominal suffixes may be attached to verbs, nouns, and prepositions. Aramaic pronominal suffixes have person, gender, and number. When attached to nouns, the meaning is normally possessive and translated “my, his, her.” When attached to prepositions or verbs, the normal meaning is objective and translated “to me, to him, to her.”

Practice

• A. Memorize the vocabulary.

• B. Memorize the independent personal pronouns.

• C. Memorize the pronominal suffixes.

• D. Translate Daniel 2:4-11.

4. Introduction to Verbs

The Verb

Aramaic verb stems mostly follow the form of Hebrew, but the names have changed. Along with the verbal stems listed below, Aramaic verbs have two tenses: Perfect and Imperfect; two moods: Imperative and Jussive; three voices: active, passive and reflexive. Also is found the Infinitive and the Participle.

• I.     Aramaic Stems. Aramaic stems correspond to the Hebrew stems except the names

have changed. The following list gives the technical name which will be simplified for ease of use (e.g. Pe’al = Peal, throughout the rest of the book).

a. Simple

b. Intensive

c. Causative

• II.     Tense. Aramaic has two tenses: perfect and imperfect.

• a. Perfect. The perfect tense indicates completed action or a state of being corresponding to the following:

• i)  Present Perfect “I have written.”

• ii) Simple Past “I wrote.”

• iii) Past Perfect “I had killed.”

• iv) Prophetic Perfect. Perfect as a future.

  Perfect Conjugation
  3ms		3mp	ו + xxx
  3fs	ת_ + xxx	3fp	ו + xxx
  2ms	xxx + ת / ת	2mp	xxx + תון
  2fs		2fp
  1cs	ת + xxx	1cp	נא + xxx

• b. Imperfect. The imperfect tense indicates incomplete action or state of being.

• i)  Present “I write,” “I am writing.”

• ii) Future “I will write.”

  Imperfect Conjugation
  3ms	xxx + י	3mp	י + xxx + ון
  3fs	xxx + ת	3fp	ן + xxx + י
  2ms	xxx + ת	2mp	ת + xxx + ון
  2fs		2fp
  1cs	xxx + א	1cp	xxx + נ

• III.   Mood. Aramaic has two moods: imperative and jussive.

a. Imperative. The imperative only occurs in the second singular and plural. Note that the second person imperfect may also function as an imperative. The imperative is translated as: כתב “(you) write!”

b. Jussive. Like Hebrew, the jussive only occurs in the third person imperfect. There is a difference in spelling for the plural forms, while the imperfect ends in final nun (ן), the jussive omits it.

• •  Imperfect : אבדון’, “they will perish”

• •  Jussive:    אבדו’ “let them perish”

• IV.    Voice. Aramaic has three voices: active, passive and reflexive.

• a.  Active. The subject performs the action: “I write.”

• b. Passive. An external agent performs the action: “It being written.”

• c.  Reflexive. The subject performs the action on itself: “I write myself.”

• V.     Infinitive. The infinitive is a verbal noun: מכתב “to write.”

• VI.    Participle. The participle is a verbal adjective: כתב “writing.”

a. The participle has a multi-purpose sense.

• 1.  Continuous and habitual action.

ובקרו והשכחו די קריתא ד% מן־יומת עלמא על־מלכין מתנשאה

“and it was found that this city in former times has revolted against kings” (Ezra 4:19)

• 2. Immediate present.

מהודעין אנחנה למלכא די

“we inform the king that… ” (Ezra 4:16)

• 3.  Simultaneous with the main verb, often translated as a past tense.

בה־שעתה נפקו אצבען די יד־אנש וכתבן לקבל נברשתא

“at this very moment a finger came out and wrote” (Dan. 5:5)

• 4.  Used freely as a narrative tense (Dan. 3:3-4).

• VII.   Verbs with pronominal suffixes. Suffixes attached to verbs function as accusatives or as direct objects: e.g., “I see you.” There is no pronominal suffix for the 3mp and 3fp, instead the independent personal pronouns הטון ,המו are used.

  	Suffix	Word11	Conjugation	Root	Translation
  1cs	ני	הודעתני	Aph Perf 2ms + p.s. 1cs	ידע	you knew me
  2ms	%	השלטך	Aph Perf 3ms + p.s. 2ms	שלט	he ruled you
  3ms	H (after a consonant)	סתרה	Peal Perf 3ms + p.s. 3ms	סתר	he hid him
  	הי (after a vowel)	בנהי	Peal Perf 3ms + p.s. 3ms	בנה	he built him
  3fs	H	השלמה	Aph Perf 3ms + p.s. 3fs	שלם	he completed her
  2mp	!Ak	ישאלנכון	Peal Imp 3ms + p.s. 2mp	שאל	he asked you
  1cp	נא	הודעתנא	Aph Perf 2ms + P.s. 1cp	ידע	you knew us

Practice

• A. Memorize the vocabulary.

• B. Memorize the Perfect and Imperfect conjugations.

• C. Translate Daniel 2:12-19.

5. The Simple Verb

Vocabulary

The Simple Verb Stems

The Peal, Peil and Hithpeel stems are called the simple verb stems. The Peal is the simple active, the Peil is the simple passive, and the Hithpeel (and the rare Ithpeel) is the simple reflexive stem.

Peal Perfect Strong Verb

The simple perfect active verb stem in Aramaic is called the Peal perfect stem and is idenified by a vocal sheva ( , ) under the first root consonant and a pathach ( _ ) under the second root consonant. The Peal perfect stem has the following conjugations.

נבוכדנצר מלכא ]בד צלם די-ךהב

“Nebuchadnezzar the king made an image of gold” (Dan. 3:1)

ונבוכדנצר מלכא שלח למכנש לאחשדדרפחא

“Then Nebuchadnezzar the king sent to gather together the princes…” (Dan. 3:2)

Peal Imperfect Strong Verbs

The simple active imperfect verb stem in Aramaic is called the Peal imperfect and is identified by the hireq ( .) under the first root consonant position (or seghol with the 1cs) and a qibbuts ( s) under the second root consonant when not reduced. The Peal Imperfect has the following conjugations. Notice the 2fs and 2ms have the save form.

תפלון ותסגדון לצלם דהבא די הקים נבוכךנצר מלכא

You fall down and worship the golden image that Nebuchadnezzar the king set up (Dan. 3:5b)

Imperfect Notes

• 1. Imperfect with Energic Nun. An addition of an additional nun (נ) or a doubling of the nun (נ) is common with the Aramaic imperfect. Dr. Schuele notes, “While the energic nun is largely insignificant for translation purposes, it is important to analyze it properly in order to avoid mistaking it for one of the root consonants.”13

חלם חזית וידחלנני והרהרין ]ל-משכבי וחזוי ראשי יבהלנני

“I saw a dream that scared me, and thoughts on my bed and the visions of my head troubled me” (Dan. 4:2)

• 2. Negation of the Imperfect Conjugation. There are two forms of the negative particle attached to the imperfect.

• a.  לא is used twenty-three times.

• b.  אנל is used four times. This form is often identified with the Jussive, though this is not universal.

ומן-ךי-לא נפל ויסגד “and whoever does not fall down and worship” (Dan. 3:6)

Peal Imperative

The simple active imperative verb stem in Aramaic is the Peal imperative and is identified by the vocal sheva ( , ) under the first root consonant and a qibbuts ( s) under the second root consonant when not reduced. The Peal imperative has the following conjugations.

וכל-רז לא-אנס ל% חזוי חלמי די-חזית ופשרה אמר

And no secret troubles you, tell me the visions of my dream that I have seen and its interpretation (Dan. 4:9)

Peal Infinitive

The simple infinitive verb stem in Aramaic is the Peal infinitive and is identified to the addition of the mem-hireq ( מ ) prefix, and a pathach ( _ ) under the second root

consonant. The Peal infinitive has the following conjugation.

לחנכה צלמא הי הקים נבוכדנצר מלכא

To come to the dedication of the image which Nebuchadnezzar the king had set up (Dan. 3:2b)

Peal Participle

The simple active participle is called the Peal participle in Aramaic and is identified by the qamets ( t ) under the first root consonant. “Since the participle is grammatically a noun, it has the endings of a noun in the absolute state. On its verbal side, the participle is included in the verbal stem system.”14 The Peal participle is the simple active participle and has the following conjugations.

The peal participle is translated, כתב “the one who writes,” or, “writing.”

ענה דניאל ואמר להוא שמה ךי־אלהא מברך מ!־עלמא ועך־עלמא

Daniel answered and said: Blessed be the name of God forever and ever (Dan. 2:20).

Peal Strong Verb Notes

• 1.  The 2ms has an alternate form. The dictionary form is כתבה but is also found with the final sheva כתבה.

• 2. A vocal sheva is placed under the first root letter because Aramaic prefers a reduced vowel in opn, pretnic syllables. However, a Hireq is used in the 3fs and 1cs due to the fact that two side by side vocal shevas cannot both be. When two vocal shevas occur at the beginning of the word, the first is truned into a Hireq15.

• 3.  The normal vowel placed under the second root consonant is the Pathach ( : ). However, this second root consonant may also be a Hireq ( .) or a Tsere ( .. ).

Peil Perfect Strong Verb

The simple perfect passive verb stem in Aramaic is called the Peil perfect and is identified by the hireq yod ( ’. ) in the stem vowel position16. The Peil perfect has the following conjugations.

Peil Participle

The Peil Participle is the simple passive participle. The peil participle is translated, כתיב “the one who was written.”

Hithpeel Perfect Strong Verb

The simple perfect reflexive verb stem in Aramaic is called the Hithpeel perfect and is identified by the he-hireq-tav-sheva ( הת ), however, if the word begins with a sibilant (z, c, V) then the tav ( ת ) of the hithpeel prefix and sibilant (z, c, V) metathesis (i.e., switch places). The Hithpeel prefix is followed by form of the participle. The Hithpeel perfect has the following conjugations.

חזה הוית ]ד די התגזרת אבן די-לא בידין

You beheld while a stone was cut out without hands (Dan. 2:34a).

Hithpeel Imperfect Verb

The simple imperfect reflexive verb stem in Aramaic is called the Hithpeel imperfect and is identified by the he-hireq-tav-sheva ( th ), however, if the word begins with a sibilant (ז c V) then the tav ( ת ) of the hithpeel prefix and sibilant (ז c V) metathesis (i.e., switch places). The Hithpeel prefix is followed by form of the imperfect. The Hithpeel imperfect has the following conjugations.

Hithpeel Infinitive

The simple reflexive infinitive verb stem in Aramaic is the Hithpeel infinitive and is identified to the addition of the he-hireq-tav-sheva ( th ). The Hithpeel infinitive has the following conjugation.

דניאל יחברוהי להריקטלה to

And they sought Daniel and his friends in order to execute [them] (Dan. 2:13).

Hithpeel Participle

The simple reflexive participle verb stem in Aramaic is the Hithpeel participle and is identified to the addition of the mem-hireq-tav-sheva ( טור ). The Hithpeel participle has the following conjugations.

Ithpeel Verb Stem

The Ithpeel is a minor variation of the Hithpeel stem and has the same meaning. The Ithpeel only occurs four times in the Bible and is identified by the Ithpeel prefix ה) את of the Hithpeel is replaced with א in the Ithpeel). Dr. Van Pelt provides the following17:

Practice

• A. Memorize the vocabulary.

• B. Memorize the Perfect and Imperfect conjugations.

• C. Translate Daniel 2:20-27 conjugating all verbs.

6. Nouns

Vocabulary

The Noun

Aramaic nouns are identified according to three states: absolute, determined or construct. Since a noun identifies a person, place, thing, or idea, Aramaic nouns possess gender (masculine, feminine) and number (singular, dual, plural). As with the Hebrew noun, Aramaic nouns are for the most part composed of three root consonants with a fewer set of two root consonants. Aramaic also has some four root consonants that are all of foreign origin. Some Aramaic nouns possess an odd characteristic that uniquely identifies their function. These functions are defined below.

• a. Gentilic nouns. A gentilic noun is one that identifies the resident of a locality or class. Gentilic nouns have a Qamets Yod (\) added as a suffix.

  Name	Location/Class18
  כשדי	Chaldean
  יהוי	Judean, Jew
  פרסי	Persian
  בבלי	Babylonian
  ’ ליי	Levite

• b. Occupational nouns. An occupational noun is one that identifies an occupation. Occupational nouns possess a daghesh forte in the second root consonant followed by a Qamets.

  Name	Occupation
  טבח	butcher, executioner
  דון	judge
  זמר	musician

• c. Locality nouns. Locality nouns are nouns that indicate a place where the action takes place. Locality nouns are prefixed with mem with either a Hireq or a Pathach (מ or מ).

Name Locality

aTVm     banquet hall

משכב     a bed

מדבח      altar

• d. Abstract nouns. Abstract nouns are nouns that indicate non-physical realities such as idea or concepts19. Abstract nouns have a Shureq suffix.

Name   Idea

זכי        innocence

מלכי      kingdom

רבי        greatness

• I. Gender of Nouns and Adjectives

Both nouns and adjectives follow the same rules.

Masculine nouns. Masculine nouns have no distinct endings and are thus harder to identify with certainty. The only way to determine a masculine noun with certainty is to look it up in the lexicon. The lexical form (dictionary form) is the absolute singular form.

• 1. Nouns that are naturally male will be masculine. An example is: אב father (m).

Feminine nouns. Feminine nouns can be identified in the following way:

• 1. Feminine nouns will normally be augmented with the feminine ending of either Qamets He (hT) or Qamets Alef (aT).

חיוה       animal (f)

קריא      city (f)

• 2. Some feminine nouns may end with Shureq (ו ) or Tav (ת).

מלכו     kingdom (f)

קצת      end (f)

• 3.  Some nouns are naturally feminine and have no unique ending.

ארע      ground, earth (f)

יד        hand (f)

• 4. Nouns that refer to female persons will be feminine. An example is: אם mother.

• II. Number

Aramaic nouns are either singular, dual, or plural. The rules for identification are as follows.

• 1.  Singular. Singular nouns have no special singular additions.

• 2. Dual. There are certain nouns that naturally occur in pairs like eyes and ears. These dual nouns are identified by the dual ending ין_ (patah + yod + hireq + final nun). Examples are:

!ידי     hands

רגלין     feet

תרתין   two

• 3. Plural. The Aramaic plural noun means three or more. Plural endings generally correspond to their gender but are not always consistent. The singular forms sometimes undergo changes when augmented with their plural endings. These changes have to do with the language’s vocalization.

• a. Masculine plural endings.

• Most masculine plural nouns end with ין (hireq-yod, followed by final nun).

Singular                         Plural

%מל       king         ^    מלכין       kings

• Some masculine plural nouns end with ק (Qamets followed by nun), which is the normal ending for the feminine plural noun.

Singular

Plural

כרסא     throne        ——    כרסרן        thrones

• b. Feminine plural nouns.

• Most feminine plural nouns end with a Qamets and nun )t .

Singular                        Plural

מתנה        gift            —    מתנן            gifts

• A few feminine plural nouns end with ין (hireq-yod, followed by final nun), which is the normal ending for the masculine plural noun.

Singular

מלה

word        —

Plural

מלין

words

• III. State

Aramaic nouns and adjectives are classified as either absolute, construct or determined state.

1. Absolute and Construct State. As Dr. Schuele says, “The absolute state indicates that a noun is not determined by any other noun, whereas in the construct state it is followed by one or several other nouns (genitive, or construct chain). For example, in the phrase ‘the house of David,’ ‘house’ is the construct noun because it is determined in this case by a proper noun that explains whose house it is.”*

Andreas Schuele, An Introduction to Biblical Aramaic (Louisville: WJK, 2012), p. 20

• a. The absolute state is the normal word.

• b. The construct state is genitive and implies determination.

מלת מלכא

Construct state

Absolute state

[the] word of the king

• c. The determined state is a noun with the definite article (aj attached to the end of the word.

Hebrew              Aramaic            Translation

the king                מלכא                 המלך

Table adopted from Miles Van Pelt, Basics of Biblical Aramaic (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2011), p. 27

• IV. The Construct Chain

“A construct chain is a group of contiguous (side by side) nouns that are bound together in order to express the ‘of relationship between those nouns.”* Dr. Miles Van Pelt lists the following rules for construct nouns.

Miles Van Pelt, Basics of Biblical Aramaic (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2011), p. 32

• 1.  The absolute or determined noun is always the last noun in the construct chain.

• 2.  Construct nouns cannot take a definte article.

• 3. In a construct chain, there is only one absolute or determined noun. There may, however, be two or three construct nouns in a construct chain.

• V. The Particle די .

Another way to express the genitive case in Aramaic is to use the particle די.

• 1.  After an absolute noun.

וכפין די־נשר “and the wings of an eagle” (Dan. 7:4)

• 2. After a determined noun.

בחזוא די־ליליא “in the vision of the night” (Dan. 2:19)

• 3. After a noun with a pronominal suffix.

אלהה די־תיאל “the God of Daniel” (Dan. 6:26; Heb. 6:27)

• VI. Pronominal Suffixes with Nouns.

Aramaic pronominal suffixes have person, gender, and number. When attached to nouns, the meaning is normally possessive and translated “my, your, his, her, our, their.”

Pronominal Suffix with אלה                 Pronominal Suffix with חיוה

Pronominal Suffix with אלהין masc. pl.

Pronominal Suffix with חיון

Practice

• A. Memorize the vocabulary.

• B. Memorize the endings for the masculine and feminine noun.

• C. Translate Daniel 2:28-35 conjugating all verbs.

7. The Intensive Verb

Vocabulary

Aramaic Intensive Verbs

The Aramaic intensive active verb stem is called the Pael, and the intensive passive/reflexive verb stem is called the Hithpaal and the rare Ithpaal*.

The intensive mode signifies intensive or repeated action.

Table adapted from Basics of Biblical Aramaic, Miles Van Pelt (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2011), p.141

Pael Perfect Strong Verb

The intensive perfect active verb stem in Aramaic is called the Pael perfect and is identified by a Pathach under the first root consonant and a Daghesh Forte in the second root consonant (כתב). The Pael perfect has the following conjugations.

אזה _יתיךא גביא אלך הי הסקו לשדדך מישך ועבד נגר קטל המון שביבא ךי נורא

The flame of fire intensely killed those men that took up Shadrach, Meshah, and Abednego (Dan. 3:22b)

Pael Imperfect Strong Verb

The intensive imperfect active verb stem in Aramaic is called the Pael imperfect and is identified by the vocal Shava under the prefix performative, Pathach under the first root consonant and a Daghesh Forte in the second root consonant (יניתב). The Pael imperfect has the following conjugations.

חלם חזית ויךחלכני יהךהךין על־משכבי

I saw a dream and I was intensely afraid upon my bed (Dan. 4:5 Heb. 4:2)

Pael Imperative Strong Verb

The intensive active imperative verb stem in Aramaic is called the Pael imperative and is identified by a Pathach under the first root consonant and a Daghesh Forte in the second root consonant. The Pael imperative has the following conjugations.

אתרו ]פיה ובדרו אנבה תנד חיותא מן־תחתוהי וצפריא מן־ענפוהי

Strip off its leaves and intensely scatter his fruit. Let the beasts get away from under it and the birds from his branches (Dan 4:14, Aram. 4:11b).

Pael Infinitive Strong Verb

The Pael intensive infinitive verb stem is identified by the normal Pael identifers together with the Qamets He ( ה’ ) ending.

Pael Participle

The intensive active participle stem is identified by a vocal Shava under the Mem participle prefix along with a Pathach under the first root consonant and a Daghech Forte in the second root consonant if lengthening is required (מכתב). The Pael participle stem has the following conjugations.

הוא גלא ]מיקתא ומסתרתא יד] מה בחשוכא ונהירא ]מה שרא

He reveals deep and ntense secret things; He knows what is in the darkness, and light dwells with Him (Dan 2:22)

Hithpaal Perfect Strong Verb

The intensive passive/reflexive verb stem in Aramaic is called the Hithpaal and has the following identifiers: it has the Hithpaal prefix ( הת ), a Pathach under the first root consonant and a Daghesh Forte in the second root consonant (התכתב). The Hithpaal has the following conjugations.

יהתנבי הגי נביאה וזכריה בר־עהוא נביאיא על־יהודיא די ביהוד

Then the prophets Haggai the prophet and Zechariah the son of Iddo intensely prophesied unto the Jews (Ezra 5:1a)

Hithpaal Imperfect Strong Verb

The intensive imperfect passive/reflexive verb stem has the imperfect prefix, the Hithpaal prefix minus the He (תי), a Pathach under the first root consonant and a Daghesh Forte in the second root consonant (יתכתב).   The Hithpaal imperfect has the following

conjugations.

Hithpaal Imperfect

ובטל שמיא יצטבע יעם־הותא הלקה בעשב ארעא

And let it be intensely wet with the dew of heaven and its portion [be] with the beasts in the grass of the earth (Dan 4:12b).

Hithpaal Participle Strong Verb

The Hithpaal participle stem is formed with the Mem Hireq prefix (m), the Hithpaal prefix minus the He (ת), a Pathach under the first root consonant and a Daghesh Forte in the second root consonant (מתכתב) and finished with the personal ending. The Hithpaal participle has the following conjugations.

ודי חזית פרזלא מערב בחסף טינא מתערבין

And that you saw the iron being mixed in clay, intensely mixing (Dan. 2:43a)

Hithpaal Infinitive Construct Strong Verb

The Hithpaal infinitive verb stem has the following conjugation.

Ithpaal Perfect

The rare Ithpaal is a modification of the Hithpaal, changing the prefix from הת to את or את. The Ithpaal only occurs three times and occurs only in the perfect*.

Miles Van Pelt, Basics of Biblical Aramaic (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2011), p. 140

ibid

Practice

• A. Memorize the vocabulary.

• B. Memorize the Pael Perfect forms.

• C. Translate Daniel 2:36-43 conjugating all verbs.

8. Adjectives, Conjunctions and Prepositions

Vocabulary

Adjectives

Aramaic adjectives (Latin adicicere meaning, “to throw to,“ or “to add to what has been said”) are formed like the noun and match the noun it modifies in gender, number and state.

1.  The Form of the Adjective.

2. The Aramaic Adjectives.

3. The Use of the Adjective

• A. Attributive usage. When the adjective follows the noun it modifies it is said to be in the attributive position.

מלך רב “a great king”

• B. Predicative usage. When an adjective appears to modify a noun in the absolute state and there is a “to be” verb present, or no verb present, the usage is called predicative and the adjective asserts something about the noun (e.g., “the book is good”)*.

Miles Van Pelt, p. 65

מלבו רביעיה תהוא תקיפה “the fourth kingdom was strong” (Dan. 2:40)

• C. Substantive usage. When the adjective stands alone without the noun, the adjective is called substantive and functions as a noun.

ופם ממלל רברבן and a mouth speaking great things (Dan. 7:8)

Conjunctions

Aramaic conjunctions (Latin coniungere meaning, “to join together”) come in two types, coordinating conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions.

• 1. Coordinating conjunctions

• a. Waw28 29 conjunction (י). The most common coordinating conjunction is ו “and,” that connects words and sentences and is prefixed to words.

  Waw used with…
  particle	והן	“and if’ (Dan. 2:6)
  verb	ואידע	“and I know” (Dan. 2:9)
  proper noun	ודניאל	“and Daniel” (Dan. 2:16)

As usual, changes occur. Dr. Rosenthal summarizes, “If the following word begins with a labial (במפ) or has a murmured vowel in the first syllable, ו becomes ו (u). Followed by י, becomes וי. Followed by a syllable containing an ultra-short vowel, the cooresponding full vowel appears after והלך :ו “and (a kind of) taxes,“ ואתו “and come!,” etc. However, it is ואלהא E 6:12, וסנר “and he looked” D 6:23, וכידמוהי D 7:13.”34

• b.  @א. The conjunction אף is normally translated, “also.”

ואף קדמך מלכא חבולה לא עבדת

“and also before you, O king, I have done no harm” (Dan. 6:22; Eng. 6:23)

• c.  ברם. The conjunction ברם is normally translated, “except, yet, however, but.”

ברם איתי אלה בשמיא גלא ר־זין

But there is a God in heaven who reveals secrets (Dan. 2:28a)

• d.  הן. The conjunction הן is normally translated, “if, whether.”

והן לא תסגון בהישעתה תתרמון לגוא־אתון נורא יקדתא

And if you do not worship, you shall be cast immediately into the midst of the burning fiery furnace (Dan. 3:15c)

• e.  להן. The conjunction להן is normally translated, “therefore.”

להן חלמא ופשרה החווי

Therefore tell me the dream and its interpretation (Dan. 2:6b)

• 2. Subordinating conjunctions

• a.  די . The conjunction די “that,” introduces subordinate clauses after verbs meaning to know, see, or hear. The conjunction די is also used to introduce final clauses (e.g., Ezra 5:10), and causal clauses (e.g., Dan. 2:47).

• b. כדי . The conjunction כךי is temporal and is normally translated “when.”

• c.  הן . The conjunction הן is normally translated, “if.”

  Conjunctions
  Coordinating
  @a	also	הן	if, whether
  ברם	except, yet, however, but	__להן__	therefore
  Subordinating
  די	that	כדי	when

Prepositions

Aramaic prepositions (Latin praeponere meaning “to put before,” or “place before”) come in two forms, inseperable and independent. Prepositions may function adjectivally when modifying a noun or pronoun (e.g., the man by the river), or adverbially when modifying a verb (e.g., he was troubled in the night).

• a.  Inseperable. These include: B, K, and ל, attached to a word.

• i)       B : local and temporal: “in”; instrumental: “through, with.”

• ii)        K : “like, as.”

• iii)      ל : “to, for”; direction: “to”; temporal: “for.”

• b. Independent. The list of independent prepositions are as follows:30

  Independent Prepositions
  אחרי	after	מן	from, out of
  בתר	after	עך	until
  בן	between	על	on, upon, over
  גוא	within	עם	with
  די לא	without	צד	side
  לוה	with, at	תחות	underneath
  לקבל	facing, opposite	קדם	before
  לקצת	at the end of

Practice

• A. Memorize the conjunctions and prepositions.

• B. Memorize and write the form of the adjective bj “good.”

• C. Translate Daniel 2:44-49 conjugating all verbs.

9. The Causative Verb

Vocabulary

Aramaic Causative Verbs

The Aramaic causative active verb stem is called the Haphel (and Aphel, Shaphel) and the causative passive verb stem is called the Hophal (and Haphal)31.

Haphel/Aphel/Shaphel Perfect Strong Verb

The Haphel is identified by the Haphel prefix (ה). There are two alternate forms called the Aphel whose prefix is א, and the Shaphel32 whose prefix is V. All three forms are causative. The Haphel perfect has the following conjugations:

באדין דניאל התיב עטא וטעם לאריוך רב־טבחיא

Then with counsel and wisdom Daniel caused to return (i.e. replied) to Arioch, the great guardsman (Dan. 2:14a)

אקימה בבקעת דורא במךינת בבל

He set it up in the plain of Dura, in the province of Babylon (Aphel, Dan. 3:1)

Haphel Imperfect Strong Verb

The Haphel imperfect is identified by a Haphel prefix (ה) together with the imperfect performatives. The Haphel imperfect has the following conjugations:

כען דניאל יתקרי ופשרה יהחוה

[N]ow let Daniel be called and he will cause to declare the interpretation. (Dan. 5:12c)

Haphel Imperative Strong Verb

The Haphel imperative is identified by a Haphel prefix (ה) in addition to the imperative performatives. The Haphel imperative has the following conjugations:

וכן אמר־לה לחכימי בבל אל־תהובד העלני קדם מלכא ופשרא למלכא אחוא

[A]nd thus he said to him, do not destroy the wise men of Babylon; bring me before the king and I will show to the king the interpetation. (Dan. 2:24b)

Haphel Participle Strong Verb

The Haphel participle is identified by a Haphel prefix (ה) in addition to the participle performatives. The Haphel participle has the following conjugations:

על־מה דתא מהחצפה מן־קדם מלכא

Why is the decree from the king caused to be urgent? (Dan. 2:15b)

Haphel Infinitive Strong Verb

The Haphel infinitive is identified by a Haphel prefix (ה) to the infinitive performative.

ופשרא להחוייה למלכא

[A]nd telling the interpretation to the king. (Dan. 2:16b)

Hophal Perfect Strong Verb

The causative passive verb stem in Aramaic is called the Hophal and is identified by the Hophal prefix (ה) with either a Qubbuts ( s) for u-class, Qamets-Hatuf (t ) for o-class, and Tsere ( .. ) for irregular verbs. The Hophal only occurs in the Bible in the perfect and only twelve times38.

Practice

• A. Memorize the vocabulary.

• B. Memorize and write the Haphel form.

• C. Translate Daniel 3:1-6 conjugating all verbs.

10. Adverbs, Particles and Numbers

Vocabulary

Aramaic Adverbs

Adverbs complete the thought of when, how, where, or why the action is performed.

Aramaic Particles

Particles are those catch all words which cannot be categorized as either nominal or verbal. Aramaic particles are either standalone words or the interrogative particle ( ה ).

Interrogative Particle ה

The interrogative particle ( ה ) may be prefixed to a noun, verb, or another particle and serves to ask a question.

ענה מלכא ואמר הלא דא-היא בבל רבתא

The king spoke, saying, “Is this not great Babylon …” (Dan. 4:27; Eng. 4:30)

Accusative Particle

The Aramaic Sign of the Direct Object (Accusative particle) only occurs once and is identified as t־ (cf. Dan. 3:12). Dr. Miles Van Pelt notes, “it is much more common for the preposition ל to mark the verbal object.”39

Interjection Particles

There are three interjection particles all meaning “look! behold!”

אלו     Look! Behold!

ארו     Look! Behold!

הא     Look! Behold!

Numbers

There are two types of numbers in Aramaic, the cardinal and the ordinal numbers. Numbers are adjectives and as such they are inflected like adjectives when used.

• 1. Cardinal numbers. Cardinal numbers are numbers signifying the counting values

• 1, 2, 3, etc.

  Num.	Masc.	Fem.
  1	חך	חךה
  2	תרץ	תרתץ
  3	תלתה	תלת
  4	ארבעה	ארבע
  5	חמשה	חמש
  6	שתה	שת
  7	שבעה	שבע
  8	תמניה	תמנה
  9	תשעה	תשע
  10	עשרה	עטר
  12	תרי עטר

  20	עשרי!	100	מאה
  30	תלתי!	200	מאתי!
  40	ארבעין	400	ארבע מאה
  50	חמשי!	1,000	אלף
  60	שתי!	10,000	רבו
  70	שבעין	1,000,000	אלף אלפים
  80	תמני!	100,000,000	רבו רבו!
  90	תשעיין

• 2. Ordinal Numbers. Ordinal numbers are adjectives and indicate position in a series

• i.e., קךמי “first, former.” The ordinal numbers in Biblical Aramaic only cover the first four.

  Number	Masc.	Fem.
  first	קךמי (קךמיא)	קךמיה (קךמיתא)
  second	תני!	תנינה
  third	תליתי	תליתיה

  #### רביעיה (רביעיתא)

  #### (ר־ביעיא)

  fourth

• 3. Multiplication. Multiplication of numbers is expressed as follows: חד־שבעה “seven times” (cf. Dan. 3:19).

• 4.  Fractions. Fractions are expressed by the following:

One-half       פלג        Dan. 7:25

One-third      תלתא      Dan. 5:16,29

• 5. Dates. Dates are expressed using cardinal numbers following the contruct state of שנת “year” and יום “day.” For example, למלכות tV שנת is “year six of the reign of.’..” (Ezra 6:15).

• 6. Age. The age of a person is expressed by the phrase “son of n years”: !שתין ותרתי כבר שנין “as (a son) sixty-two years old” (Dan. 6:1)40.

Practice

• A. Memorize the vocabulary.

• B. Translate Daniel 3:7-18 conjugating all verbs.

11. The Weak Verbs

In contrast to strong verbs whose three root consonants remain relatively stable, weak verbs experience radical changes when augmented. Dr. Rosenthal provides the following summary: “The verbal conjugation follows an identical scheme for all roots. Minor irregularities occur principally in connection with roots that contain a glottal stop; that have n as the first consonant; and which consisted originally of two consonants made triconsonantal by the addition of w/y or by doubling of the second consonant. These are the ’weak’ verbs, as opposed to the regular ‘strong’ verb.”33

Basic Rules for Weak Verbs34

• 1.  Some weak verbs drop the initial consonant of the three root consonants.

• 2.  Some weak verbs assimilate their first or second root consonants to what follows or precedes. This assimilation is typically expressed through a dagesh forte in the consonant that assimilates.

• 3.  Some weak verbs change their first root consonant if it is an a, ה, or י.

• 4.  Some weak verbs change their third root consonant when they have a final a or ה.

First Root Consonant Rules

• I.     Roots beginning with נ

• 1.  The initial נ drops in the imperative (e.g. afn “to take” changes to af “take!”)

• 2.  The initial נ can assimilate to the following consonant if there is no vowel between the two, hence the second radical is doubled (e.g. ינפל “to fall” changes to יפל “he will fall”)

• II.     Roots beginning with י

• 1.  The initial י drops in the imperative (e.g. ידע “to know” changes to דע “know!”)

• 2.  The initial י turns into ו when a prefix is added (e.g. ידע “to know” changes to הודע “he informed” in the Haphel)

• III.    Roots beginning with a

1. The initial a disappears if it becomes part of the prefix syllable (e.g. אמן “to trust” changes to הימן “he trusted” in the Haphel)

Second Root Consonant Rules

Second root position beginning with י or ו

• 1.  In some roots, ו functions as a consonant (e.g. הוה “he was” ; חך “he informed”)

• 2.  Long a is found with the perfect Peal (e.g. קום changes to קם “he rose”; שים changes to שם “he placed”)

• 3.  The Peal participle has a consonant a or י inserted (e.g. קום “to stand up, rise” changes to קאם m.sg. part.)

• 4.  The Peil is unpredictable as the perfect has either i or u (e.g. שים “he was put”; שמת “it was placed”)

Final Root Consonant Rules

• I.      Roots ending in ו / י or a

1. Roots originally ending in ו ,י and a have merged with some exceptions for those ending in a. The spelling of theses final forms vacillates between ה and a (e.g. abc changed to צבת “I wanted”)

• II.    Root with Identical Second and Third Root Consonants

• 1. When there is no vowel between these consonants, the two merges into one (e.g. דקק changes to דקו “they were shattered” in the Peal Perf. Pl.)

• 2. When no vowel is found between the first and second consonants, the second consonant assimilates to the first (e.g. דקק changes to הדקו “they broke in pieces” in the Hafel Perf. Pl.)

Verbs with ח, [, or ר

1. These laryngeals are preceded by a or e rather than i/e or u/o (e.g. אמר “saying,” ידע “knowing”)

Appendix

Answers to Questions

Chapter 2 The alphabet

Transliterate the following proper names:

Bethlehem Benjamin David

ישראל הלף יונתו

Vocabulary

Verb Charts

43 Table adapted from Basics of Biblical Aramaic, Miles Van Pelt (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2011), p. 141

Bibliography

Ackrod, P.R., & Evans, C.E,. ed., The Cambridge History of the Bible, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970

Archer, Gleason, A Survey of Old Testament Introduction, Chicago:Moody Press, 1994 Gesenius, H.W.F., Gesenius’ Hebrew-Chaldee Lexicon to the Old Testament, Grand Rapids:Baker, 1979

Holladay, William, ed., A Concise Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testamnet, Grand Rapids:Eerdmans, 1988

Rosenthal, Franz, A Grammar of Biblical Aramaic, Wiesbaden:Harrassowitz Verlag, 1995

Schuele, Andreas, An Introduction to Biblical Aramaic, Louisville:WJK, 2012

Tenney, Merrill, The Zondervan Pictorial Encyclopedia of the Bible, Grand Rapids:Zondervan, 1976

Van Pelt, Miles, Basics of Biblical Aramaic, Grand Rapids:Zondervan, 2011